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Vocapedia >
Health > Microbes
Germs, Bacteria, Viruses
Hygiene
Soap, Handwashing, Face masks,
Toilets, Flush toilets, Public toilets,
Sanitation, Wastewater, Sewage, Sewers,
Water system, Water access,
Untreated water, Clean water
A submission to Amplifier, titled "In Your
Hands."
Illustration: Jen Bloomer
Artists Paint A Portrait Of A Pandemic
NPR
May 11, 2020 3:33 PM ET
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/05/11/
848480166/artists-paint-a-portrait-of-a-pandemic
The importance of handwashing: 6 Minute English
BBC Learning English 7 May 2020
The importance of handwashing: 6 Minute English
Video BBC Learning English
7 May 2020
Apparently,
handwashing helps the fight against Covid-19.
Health authorities say that washing your hands can help
to prevent the spread of viruses such as the coronavirus.
But the idea of keeping hands clean
to help prevent diseases is nothing new.
Hungarian doctor, Ignaz Semmelweiss
was one of the first people to realise its importance.
Neil and Georgina talk about his work
and teach you some useful English vocabulary
along the way.
YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHtvi6EtGkw
How you've been washing your hands wrong
your
entire life BBC 25 February 2019
How you've been washing your hands wrong your entire life
Video BBC
25 February 2019
Alan Partridge returns to our screens in This Time.
In this handy segment,
he explores the importance of washing your hands properly
and teaches us how to use the toilet without getting your
hands dirty.
This Time with Alan Partridge | Episode 1 | BBC
YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77IZttD_pU8
A boy drinks from the tap of a water tank outside a night
shelter
in
New Delhi, India.
Photograph: Shams Qari
Barcroft Images
When it comes to water access
we keep doing the same thing.
And failing
Many water and sanitation services are unreliable and
sub-standard.
We NGOs must change our way of working and be accountable
when
projects fail
G
Fri 7 Apr 2017 09.57 BST
Last modified on Fri 6 Oct 2017 13.12 BST
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/apr/07/
clean-water-everyone-sdg-failure
hygiene UK
https://www.theguardian.com/society/
hygiene
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/05/
hygiene-measures-to-tackle-spread-of-covid-19
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/jun/25/
too-much-cleanliness-not-bad-for
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/may/23/
hygiene-is-the-first-priority-nepal-looks-to-clean-up-its-act-on-healthcare
hygiene USA
https://www.npr.org/2020/01/22/
798644707/why-wet-markets-persisted-in-china-despite-disease-and-hygiene-concerns
hygiene measures UK
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/05/
hygiene-measures-to-tackle-spread-of-covid-19
bathroom hygiene UK
https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2019/oct/23/
bathroom-hygiene-spread-e-coli-infections
proper hygiene UK
https://www.npr.org/2020/04/05/
827582516/in-worlds-overcrowded-refugee-camps-proper-hygiene-isolation-are-impossible
workplace hygiene USA
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/11/
us/coronavirus-covid-19-hygiene.html
World Menstrual Hygiene Day: Menstrual Cups
UK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvysXYcnwgA
video - BBC - 10 June 2019
poor hygiene standards
UK
https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/09/24/
why-it-is-so-hard-to-fix-indias-sanitation
use pit latrines
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-
is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Slumdog_Millionaire
sanitation UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/
sanitation
https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/09/24/
why-it-is-so-hard-to-fix-indias-sanitation
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/nov/13/
akshay-kumar-toilet-isnt-a-dirty-word-my-latest-film-made-me-love-the-loo
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/nov/24/
eight-ways-to-make-innovation-work-for-water-and-sanitation
sanitation crisis UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/nov/13/
akshay-kumar-toilet-isnt-a-dirty-word-my-latest-film-made-me-love-the-loo
sanitation equity USA
https://www.npr.org/2023/10/13/
1204307186/black-residents-alabama-sanitation-equity
universal sanitation
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
USA > Alabama >
waste management > failing or inadequate
water systems UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2021/feb/18/
catherine-flowers-and-her-fight-for-environmental-justice-in-alabama
Mississippi > failing water system
USA
https://www.npr.org/2022/10/20/
1130393118/the-epa-starts-a-civil-rights-probe-into-mississippis-water-woes
https://www.npr.org/2022/08/31/
1120166328/jackson-mississippi-water-crisis
waste USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
feces USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
poop USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
rural America > rural sanitation crisis > waste
sanitation, septic system USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/17/
books/review/waste-catherine-coleman-flowers.html
systems for managing wastewater
USA
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/17/
books/review/waste-catherine-coleman-flowers.html
USA > hookworm
USA
- a tropical parasite
thought to be eradicated from
the country
with the advent of modern plumbing.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/17/
books/review/waste-catherine-coleman-flowers.html
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/17/
books/review/waste-catherine-coleman-flowers.html
sewage UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/audio/2022/dec/07/
whats-gone-wrong-with-englands-water-podcast
sewage > wastewater USA
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/03/
health/coronavirus-wastewater-new-york.html
polio vaccines > oral vaccine > stool >
contaminated wastewater USA
While the United States
and other Western countries
inject an inactivated virus
that poses no risk of spread
and are now polio-free,
other countries rely
on an oral vaccine.
It's cheap, it's easy to administer
and two or more doses
confer lifelong immunity.
But it's made
with living, weakened virus.
And that poses a problem.
Those who've been immunized with live virus
can shed it in their stool,
which can then spread through sewage
in places with poor sanitation.
If the virus stays weak,
it can expose the unvaccinated to polio
and give them immunity.
But if it mutates and regains virulence,
someone who isn't vaccinated
can become sick
with vaccine-derived polio
after contact
with the contaminated wastewater.
And now countries
that had previously eradicated polio
in Africa, the Middle East and parts of Asia
are seeing new outbreaks
of vaccine-derived polio.
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2022/04/26/
1092867458/vaccine-derived-polio-is-on-the-rise-
a-new-vaccine-aims-to-stop-the-spread
raw sawage
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/04/
sewage-sleuths-river-pollution-slow-dirty-death-of-welsh-and-english-rivers
USA, Gaza > raw sewage UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2021/feb/18/
catherine-flowers-and-her-fight-for-environmental-justice-in-alabama
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/jul/31/
children-swim-sewage-floods-gaza-beach
p>
raw sewage
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
untreated sewage
pumped into England’s
seas and rivers UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/audio/2022/dec/07/
whats-gone-wrong-with-englands-water-
podcast - Guardian podcast
1858
The Great Stink
The Great Stink
was an event in Central
London
in July and August 1858
during which the hot weather exacerbated
the smell of untreated human waste
and industrial effluent
that was present on the banks
of the River Thames.
The problem
had been mounting for some years,
with an ageing and inadequate sewer system
that emptied directly into the Thames.
The miasma from the effluent
was thought to transmit
contagious diseases,
and three outbreaks of cholera
before the Great Stink
were blamed on the ongoing problem
with the river.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Great_Stink - 1 July 2021
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Great_Stink
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-
is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
Mogden sewage treatment works in west London
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/04/
sewage-sleuths-river-pollution-slow-dirty-death-of-welsh-and-english-rivers
sewage treatment
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
treatment plant
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
sanitation USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
basic sanitation
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
USA > Alabama > install sanitation systems
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2021/feb/18/
catherine-flowers-and-her-fight-for-environmental-justice-in-alabama
USA > Alabama > lack of public sanitation
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2021/feb/18/
catherine-flowers-and-her-fight-for-environmental-justice-in-alabama
waste water USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
cesspools USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
waste water > sewers / sewer system
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
waste water > sewage plant
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
USA > Alabama > private septic tanks
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2021/feb/18/
catherine-flowers-and-her-fight-for-environmental-justice-in-alabama
universal sanitation
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/23/
937945160/waste-activist-digs-into-the-sanitation-crisis-affecting-the-rural-poor
lack adequate
sanitation or safe drinking water USA
https://www.npr.org/2010/10/22/
130759193/officials-race-to-contain-cholera-outbreak-in-haiti
drink sewage water
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/28/
we-are-drinking-sewage-water-zimbabwe-shortages-threaten-thousands
pipes > corrosion
brown water coming out of taps / corroded iron, or
rust USA
https://www.propublica.org/article/
the-unfinished-business-of-flints-water-crisis
tap water > bacteria, toxic lead > Flint Water
Crisis USA
Flint, Michigan,
is less than 70 miles from the Great Lakes,
the most abundant fresh water
on the face of the planet.
It’s laced with creeks
and a broad river that bears its name.
Yet in 2014,
Flint’s drinking water became a threat
— not because of scarcity, or a natural disaster,
or even a familiar tale of corporate pollution.
Ten years ago this spring,
public officials made catastrophic changes
in the city’s water source and treatment,
then used testing practices that hid dangers.
As problems emerged,
they failed to appropriately change course.
Residents raised repeated concerns
about the color, odor and taste of the water
but struggled to get a sufficiently serious
response,
especially from state and federal authorities.
It didn’t help that the distressed city
was under the authority
of state-appointed emergency managers,
an unusually expansive oversight system
that residents decried.
For a crucial period of about 3 1/2 years,
local decision-making was not accountable
to voters.
The result: excess exposure to toxic lead,
bacteria and a disinfection byproduct
in Flint’s drinking water.
An outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease
sickened 90 people and killed 12.
(The toll is likely higher,
as Frontline documented.)
The water, now drawn from the Flint River,
wasn’t treated with corrosion control
— a violation of federal law —
so the pipes deteriorated more every day.
https://www.propublica.org/article/
flint-michigan-water-crisis-ten-years-after - May 4, 2024
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Flint_water_crisis
China > wet
markets USA
https://www.npr.org/2020/01/22/
798644707/why-wet-markets-persisted-in-china-
despite-disease-and-hygiene-concerns
clean
cleanliness UK
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/jun/25/
too-much-cleanliness-not-bad-for
open defecation UK
/ USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-
is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/30/
my-message-is-simple-use-the-toilet-
tackling-open-defecation-in-nigeria
toilets UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/10/
burying-10-children-year-toilets-saving-lives-madagascar
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/nov/13/
akshay-kumar-toilet-isnt-a-dirty-word-my-latest-film-made-me-love-the-loo
Can poo power solve India's toilet problem? - BBC News
video - BBC - 14 November 2017
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zod0s11xYTk
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/aug/20/
west-africa-toilets-slums-cholera
toilets USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goats-and-soda/2024/11/19/
g-s1-34231/health-toilet-sanitation-world-toilet-day
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-
is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2020/02/25/
808791622/why-america-is-losing-the-toilet-race
cleaner toilets UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/aug/20/
west-africa-toilets-slums-cholera
flush toilet
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2021/06/30/
1011669888/half-the-world-lacks-proper-sanitation-
is-it-possible-to-transform-the-toilet
public toilets UK
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/may/04/
sensor-taps-door-handles-
covid-19-rethink-public-toilets-bathroom-design
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2019/dec/23/
best-audio-long-reads-of-2019-hand-dryers-v-paper-towels
women's toilets UK
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/nov/14/
queue-ladies-loo-feminist-issue-public-toilets
safe toilets UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/feb/15/
safe-toilets-help-flush-out-disease-
in-cambodia-floating-communities-tonle-sap-lake
loo UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2019/dec/23/
best-audio-long-reads-of-2019-hand-dryers-v-paper-towels
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/nov/13/
akshay-kumar-toilet-isnt-a-dirty-word-my-latest-film-made-me-love-the-loo
World Toilet Day UK
https://www.economist.com/international/2019/11/17/
world-toilet-day-this-week-is-not-a-joke-but-deadly-serious
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/nov/19/
world-toilet-day-south-sudan-global-sanitation-wateraid
World toilet Day USA
At a time when toilets can heat their seats,
spray your butt with water and I dunno probably play songs
like "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go,"
how can so many people be "toilet insecure"?
In fact 3.6 billion people have no potty at home
and no easy access to affordable public toilets
(which often charge a usage fee).
What's more,
a joint report by WHO and UNICEF says
673 million people engage in open defecation,
delicately defined as "squatting outdoors."
https://www.npr.org/sections/goats-and-soda/2024/11/19/
g-s1-34231/health-toilet-sanitation-world-toilet-day
https://www.npr.org/sections/goats-and-soda/2024/11/19/
g-s1-34231/health-toilet-sanitation-world-toilet-day
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2022/11/18/
1137423455/flying-toilets-sobering-stats-poo-gurus-debut-
yes-its-time-for-world-toilet-day
bathroom
bath UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/nov/29/
five-million-families-in-britain-living-in-houses-without-baths-archive-1960
tap UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/apr/07/
clean-water-everyone-sdg-failure
soap UK
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/mar/12/
scien
wash your hands
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/05/11/
848480166/artists-paint-a-portrait-of-a-pandemic
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/13/
world/how-to-wash-your-hands-coronavirus.html
how to wash hands
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/jan/25/
children-taught-wash-hands-hygiene-antibiotics
handwashing USA
https://www.npr.org/2020/03/04/
811609241/coronavirus-fears-have-led-to-a-golden-age-of-hand-washing-psas
hand dryers UK
https://www.theguardian.com/news/audio/2019/dec/23/
best-audio-long-reads-of-2019-hand-dryers-v-paper-towels
viruses
> common cold virus
Rhinoviruses are a major cause
of the
common cold and may contribute
to about
half of asthma flare-ups.
Researchers have now
completed
sequencing
the genomes
of all the
known rhinovirus types,
setting the
stage
for the
development of
medications and vaccines
to combat
the viruses.
The cold is the most common illness known,
bringing
the sneezing, scratchy throat
and runny
nose that we're
all familiar with.
People in
the United States
have an
estimated 1 billion colds each year.
More than
200 different viruses
are known
to cause
the
symptoms of the common cold.
An
estimated 30-35% of all adult colds
are caused
by rhinoviruses.
In people
with asthma,
particularly children,
rhinovirus
infections are also
frequently associated
with
flare-ups.
Scientists
had previously identified
99 distinct
rhinovirus types.
Recently,
however,
a number of
unknown types were
detected in patients
with severe
flu-like illnesses.
- last
updated April 13, 2009
https://www.nih.gov/news-events/
nih-research-matters/understanding-common-cold-virus
Colds are
caused by viruses
and easily
spread to other people.
You're
infectious
until all
your symptoms have gone.
This
usually takes a week or 2.
Colds are spread by germs
from coughs
and sneezes,
which can
live on hands and surfaces
for 24
hours.
To reduce
the risk of
spreading a cold:
wash your
hands often
with warm
water and soap
use tissues
to trap germs
when you
cough or sneeze
bin used
tissues
as quickly
as possible
How to
prevent catching a cold
A person
with a cold can start spreading it
from a few
days before their symptoms begin
until the
symptoms have finished.
The best
ways to avoid catching a cold are:
washing your hands
with warm water and soap
not sharing
towels
or
household items (like cups)
with
someone who has a cold
not
touching your eyes or nose
in case you
have come
into contact with the virus
– it can
infect the body this way
staying fit
and healthy
The flu
vaccine helps prevent flu
but not
colds.
- 20 May
2020
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/common-cold/
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/common-cold/
https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/
understanding-common-cold-virus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus
statistics about water and hygiene
In hospitals around the world
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/04/03/
709461530/shocking-new-statistics-about-water-and-hygiene-in-hospitals-around-the-world
water UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/may/15/
people-are-more-scared-of-hunger-coronavirus-is-just-one-more-threat-in-nigeria
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/nov/24/
eight-ways-to-make-innovation-work-for-water-and-sanitation
water access / access to water UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/
access-to-water
Coronavirus en Costa Rica:
en qué se basa su exitosa estrategia para contenerlo | BBC Mundo
video - BBC News Mundo - 5 May 2020 - Spanish
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6hsbyQAQcWw
https://www.theguardian.com/
global-development-professionals-network/2017/apr/07/
clean-water-everyone-sdg-failure
water supply UK
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/27/
improve-water-supply-in-poorer-nations-to-cut-plastic-use-say-experts
USA > water insecurity
UK
Unaffordable water bills and the threat of
disconnection
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/sep/17/
us-water-bills-psychological-distress-study
water in development UK
https://www.theguardian.com/
global-development-professionals-network/series/water-in-development
water quality / water pollution
UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2017/jun/02/
china-water-dangerous-pollution-greenpeace
access to safe and reliable water
USA
https://www.npr.org/2022/10/01/
1126121420/jackson-miss-residents-struggle-with-basic-needs-
as-the-water-crisis-disrupts-li
water > cholera
USA
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2012/04/13/
150302830/water-in-the-time-of-cholera-haitis-most-urgent-health-problem
clean water UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/apr/24/
matt-damon-children-are-drinking-water-so-dirty-it-looks-like-chocolate-milk
piped water
clean drinking water
USA
https://www.npr.org/2021/11/15/
1054418311/tribes-hope-infrastructure-law-means-
theyll-finally-get-clean-drinking-water
water safety USA
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/30/
well/live/water-filter-bacteria-pfas.html
water filter / home filter
USA
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/30/
well/live/water-filter-bacteria-pfas.html
water scarcity UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/mar/22/
world-water-day-one-in-four-children-will-live-with-water-scarcity-by-2040-
unicef-report
slums UK
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2018/may/10/
dignity-community-hope-haiti-jalousie-
in-pictures - Guardian pictures gallery
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/aug/20/
west-africa-toilets-slums-cholera
garbage trucks USA
https://www.npr.org/2021/10/16/
1046603290/opinion-the-global-reason-behind-chicagos-garbage-juice
19th century - early 20th century > USA
pasteurized milk
— originating in 19th-century science
but not implemented at scale
until the early 20th century —
(...)
Drinking animal milk
— a practice as old
as animal domestication itself —
has always presented health risks,
from spoilage or by way of infections
passed down from the animal.
But the density of industrial cities like New York
had made cow’s milk far deadlier
than it was in earlier times.
In an age without refrigeration,
milk would spoil in summer months
if it was brought in from far-flung pastures
in New Jersey or upstate New York.
Increased participation from women
in the industrial labor force meant
that more infants and young children
were drinking cow’s milk
even though a significant portion of dairy
cows
suffered from bovine tuberculosis,
and unprocessed milk
from these cows could transmit the bacterium
that causes the disease to human beings.
Other potentially fatal illnesses
were also linked to milk,
including diphtheria, typhoid
and scarlet fever.
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/27/
magazine/global-life-span.html
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/27/
magazine/global-life-span.html
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