|
|
|
History > UK, British empire, England
15th century, before the 15th century
England
1497
First Act of Parliament kept at Westminster
the records of Parliament were kept among those of Chancery, but in 1497 the clerk, Master Richard Hatton, decided that the documents relating to the Parliament that had just met should be kept separately.
Ever since that date, the archives of Parliament have been kept at Westminster and have remained distinct from the archives of government held by The National Archives.
After 1497, Parliament developed its own administrative structures and record-keeping practices.
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/
Henry VII r. 1485-1509 (1457-1509)
King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509.
He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/
English Reformation / Puritanism
Puritan and Reformed Writings
https://victorianweb.org/religion/puritan.html
The House of Lancaster and the House of York
War of the Roses 1455-1487 / 1499
Map of the battles of the Wars of the Roses added 22 May 2005 http://www.warsoftheroses.com/map.cfm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
King Richard III r.1483-1485 (1452-1485)
The last Plantagenet / The last Yorkist king of England
King Richard III by Unknown artist Scanned from the book The National Portrait Gallery History of the Kings and Queens of England by David Williamson, ISBN 1855142287 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/King_Richard_III.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_Richard_III.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_III_of_England King Richard III by Unknown artist Date: late 16th century Medium: oil on panel Measurements: 22 1/2 in. x 17 5/8 in. (570 mm x 448 mm) uneven NPG 4980(12) http://keidahl.terranhost.com/Spring/EUH3501England/ImagesRichardIII.htm
https://www.bbc.co.uk/insideout/eastmidlands/series3/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/27/world/europe/king-richard-iii-burial-leicester.html
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/mar/26/britain-king-richard-iii-tyrant
http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/mar/22/richard-iii-reburial-procession-bosworth-leicester
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/800-years-english-history-20-day-trips#img-7
http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/sep/16/richard-iii-died-battle-losing-helmet-new-research
http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/sep/04/richard-iii-roundworm-infection-scientists
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/feb/05/richard-scoliosis-me-twisted-spines
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2013/feb/04/richard-iii-dna-bones-king
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/feb/05/king-richard-iii-found
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/feb/05/king-richard-iii-face-recreated
http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2013/feb/04/richard-iii-video-clips
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/dec/18/king-richard-inn-recreated-archaeologists
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/feb/19/battle-of-bosworth-site-confirmed
1485
Battle of Bosworth, Leicestershire
This was the last major engagement of the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York, which had caused havoc and carnage across the country during the late 15th century.
Although much glamorised in the ensuing centuries as a clash between the forces of good and evil, the victory of Henry VII’s Tudor forces over those of Richard III were a defining moment in English and Anglo-Welsh history;
this was the start of the Tudor dynasty and a death blow to the Plantagenets.
The drama of Bosworth has continued into the 21st century with the discovery of Richard’s remains beneath a Leicester car park. http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/800-years-english-history-20-day-trips
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/
John Lydgate of Bury c. 1370 – c. 1451
John Lydgate: Chaucer contemporary's coded graffiti recalls lost literary talent
Striking discovery in a Suffolk church reawakens interest in the once-revered prolific writer and 14th-century monk
(...)
Historians studying graffiti in ancient churches have found what they believe might be writing by one of medieval English literature's most extraordinary "lost" talents – including his signature.
Benedictine monk John Lydgate, a contemporary of Chaucer who wrote for three kings and the late 14th and early 15th-century social elite, was one of the most prolific English writers.
(...)
More than 150,000 lines of verse are attributed to Lydgate, a vast output ranging from satires to histories, epigrams, romances and plays, many of them written in the late Middle English style pioneered by Chaucer.
Lydgate idolised Chaucer, calling his fellow poet the "lodestar", and he befriended Chaucer's son, Thomas, and granddaughter, Alice. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/29/john-lydgate-graffiti-chaucer-monk-literary-talent
http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/29/
http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/mar/29/
Black Death (...) ravaged Britain and Europe in the mid-14th century
The Black Death arrived in Britain from central Asia in the autumn of 1348 and by late spring the following year it had killed six out of every 10 people in London.
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/29/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/may/23/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/29/
Moyen Âge / Middle Ages
La guerre dite de cent ans
The Hundred Years' War
1337 - 1451/3
chronologie
rois / batailles / enluminures / chroniques
1420
Traité de Troyes
1415
Bataille d'Azincourt
1356
Bataille de Poitiers
1346
Bataille de Crécy
Edouard III / Charles V (1338-1380)
Richard II / Armagnacs et Bourguignons
Henri V / Charles VI / Henri VI / Charles VII / Jeanne d'Arc
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/froissart1.asp
Peasants’ Revolt, London
Besieged by a “mob” from all over the south-east of England who held multiple grievances, the Tower of London turned from commanding fort to desperate refuge for the boy king Richard II.
When he then went to negotiate with Wat Tyler’s advancing rebels at Mile End, east London, others of their number managed to get into the Tower, killing many, including the lord high treasurer Sir Robert Hales.
Some, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon of Sudbury, sought sanctuary in the romanesque Chapel of St John the Evangelist in the White Tower, but in vain.
Like Hales, he was beheaded.
The keep at the heart of the fortification is a formidable emblem of power and authority but the rebels, enraged by their serfdom and the imposition of taxes for foreign wars, were able to force their way in and made off with all the weapons they could find. http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/800-years-english-history-20-day-trips
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/
Richard II r. 1377-1399
Richard II (6 January 1367 – c. 14 February 1400), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/
Edward III r. 1327-1377 (1312-1377
Edward III also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England from January 1327 until his death in 1377.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
August 23, 1305
Scottish hero Sir William Wallace is hanged
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/23/
King Edward I r. 1272-1307
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307.
Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 1254 to 1306 he ruled Gascony as Duke of Aquitaine in his capacity as a vassal of the French king.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
King John (r. 1199-1216) > Magna Carta - 1215
987-1152
Romanesque France at the time of the first Capetians
1152
Louis VII répudie Aliénor d'Aquitaine, qui épouse le roi d'Angleterre Henri Plantagenêt
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Norman French words
English language
The Norman Conquest and Middle English 1100-1500
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
King John r. 1199-1216 (1167-1216)
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/
Norman England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/24/
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1192peace.asp
England and France
Normans
14 October 1066
Battle of Hastings
Death of King Harold
La tapisserie de Bayeux
Duke William of Normandy crowned King of England r. 1066-1087
Section of the late 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry showing a (perhaps fanciful) representation of Harold, fatally wounded by a French arrow.
akg-images /Erich Lessing
http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/gallery/2012/oct/15/
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/
The Normans
Henry I 'Beauclerc' r. 1100-1135
William II was followed on the throne by his younger brother, Henry.
He was crowned three days after his brother's death, against the possibility that his eldest brother Robert might claim the English throne.
After the decisive battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 in France, Henry completed his conquest of Normandy from Robert, who then (unusually even for that time) spent the last 28 years of his life as his brother's prisoner.
An energetic, decisive and occasionally cruel ruler, Henry centralised the administration of England and Normandy in the royal court, using 'viceroys' in Normandy and a group of advisers in England to act on his behalf when he was absent across the Channel.
Henry successfully sought to increase royal revenues, as shown by the official records of his exchequer (the Pipe Roll of 1130, the first exchequer account to survive).
He established peaceful relations with Scotland, through his marriage to Mathilda of Scotland.
https://www.royal.gov.uk/
http://www.npr.org/2015/05/23/
Guillaume le Conquérant
William I the Conqueror / William the Bastard (c. 1028-1087)
Planning battle Row over plan to build homes over unsung battle of 1066 G p. 4 23 May 2005
Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in Falaise.
Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young.
On his father's death in 1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession.
His great uncle looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15.
From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057.
William's military successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders.
At the time of his invasion of England, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect outside his duchy.
William's claim to the English throne was based on his assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne (he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper.
Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval.
William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000 cavalry) across the Channel.
On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings.
https://www.royal.gov.uk/ - broken link
En juillet 1035, Guillaume « le Bâtard », fils illégitime du duc de Normandie, succède à son père, décédé lors d'un pèlerinage à Jérusalem.
Après une décennie de troubles, le jeune duc parvient à asseoir son autorité et fait de la cour de Normandie l'une des plus puissantes et les plus fastueuses d'Europe.
Guillaume accueille de nombreux rois en exil, parmi lesquels Édouard « le Confesseur », prétendant sans descendance au trône d'Angleterre.
Lorsque ce dernier revient au pouvoir, il fait de Guillaume son héritier, avant de le désavouer sur son lit de mort au profit de son beau-frère Harold, qui avait pourtant juré fidélité à Guillaume.
Pour récupérer le royaume qui lui était promis, le duc arme une flotte de plusieurs milliers de navires et débarque avec quinze mille hommes sur le sol anglais. [ chiffres à vérifier ]
Le 14 octobre 1066, les deux armées se font face à Hastings.
La bataille qui s'ensuivra fera basculer à jamais le sort du royaume d'Angleterre.
Face sombre
Mêlant récits d'hagiographes de l'époque, scènes de reconstitution spectaculaires - tournées pour certaines sur les lieux des événements qu'elles relatent - et témoignages de spécialistes de l'histoire médiévale de part et d'autre de la Manche, ce documentaire retrace le règne de celui qui déclencha l’une des plus célèbres batailles de l'histoire d'Angleterre.
On y dévoile la face sombre de ce guerrier intrépide, fin stratège et politicien, grand bâtisseur qui ordonna l'édification des abbayes aux Hommes et aux Dames de Caen - chefs-d'œuvre de l'art roman - ou de la Tour de Londres, et mari fidèle follement épris de son épouse Mathilde…
Il fut aussi un seigneur de guerre impitoyable qui se livra dès la prise de Londres à de nombreux massacres et pillages pour consolider le joug normand sur l'Angleterre.
Des exactions qu'il prendra soin d'effacer de la tapisserie de Bayeux, véritable outil de propagande à sa gloire, qui relate en détail sa conquête de l’Angleterre.
Fondateur d'une nouvelle dynastie, Guillaume s'éteint à 60 ans après avoir fait de l'Angleterre l'un des royaumes les plus puissants d'Europe, alors qu'il ne parlait pas un mot d'anglais, et sème ainsi les germes de la future Guerre de Cent ans, qui éclatera plus de deux siècles après. http://www.arte.tv/guide/fr/046601-000/guillaume-le-conquerant - broken link
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2018/mar/02/
https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/14/
King Harold II r. Jan-Oct 1066 (c.1020-1066)
The last Anglo-Saxon king of England, Harold held the crown for nine months in 1066
http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/
The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king
King Edward III of England / "The Confessor" r. 1042-1066 (c. 1003-1066)
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/
Cross and bed found in Anglo-Saxon grave shed new light on 'dark ages'
Archaeologists in Cambridge thrilled to discover grave with body of young woman on a bed with an ornate gold cross https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/mar/16/cross-bed-anglo-saxon-grave
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/mar/16/
Bretons, Angles et Saxons
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Largest ever hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold found in Staffordshire
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/
http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/mar/12/
http://www.theguardian.com/education/2014/mar/06/nicholas-brooks
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/video/2010/feb/10/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/nov/26/staffordshire-anglo-saxon-hoard-millions
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/nov/03/staffordshire-treasure-hoard-british-museum
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/sep/27/anglo-saxon-treasure-hoard-staffordshire
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/interactive/2009/sep/24/staffordshire-anglo-saxon-hoard
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/nov/03/iron-age-gold-treasure-found-scotland
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/sep/24/
Viking Age from the late 8th century to the early 11th century.
The extraordinary Viking expansion from the Scandinavian homelands during this era created a cultural network with contacts from the Caspian Sea to the North Atlantic, and from the Arctic Circle to the Mediterranean.
(...)
Above all, it was the maritime character of Viking society and their extraordinary shipbuilding skills that were key to their achievements.
around AD 1025, the high point of the Viking Age when England, Denmark, Norway and possibly parts of Sweden were united under the rule of Cnut the Great.
https://www.britishmuseum.org/
http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/mar/03/
http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/feb/27/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/jul/04/teeth-viking-warriors-dorset-grave
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/jun/11/skulls-dorset-road-burial-pit
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/mar/16/in-praise-of-vikings
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/feb/17/arts.artsandhumanities
410
Early medieval Britain and Ireland
Invaders > abandonment by Honorius
End of Roman rule
Saxon invasion / Anglo-Saxons (Germanic tribes that inhabited England from the 5th century and dominated until 1066)
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/may/09/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/mar/14/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/mar/14/2
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/mar/14/
Roman empire, Roman Britain
The Roman occupation of Britain, from 43 A.D. to around 410, transformed the culture, as settlers from Europe, the Middle East and Africa arrived.
Around the third century, market towns and villages were established, and Roman objects became more common even in poor, rural areas, according to English Heritage, which manages prehistoric sites, medieval castles and Roman forts in Britain.
After the Romans retreated from Britain, society became much more insular and parochial, Mr. Hunter said.
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/feb/23/
https://www.npr.org/2024/01/24/
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/
https://www.npr.org/2021/11/26/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/oct/29/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/may/13/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/sep/16/
Roman Empire
Roman occupation of Britain
Roman Britain
Emperor Antoninus Pius
Antoninus' wall b. 140
Once the Roman Empire’s most northern frontier in Britain, it was built during the years following 142 AD on the orders of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned 138-161) and survived as the north-west frontier of the Roman empire for a generation before being abandoned in the 160s in favour of a return to Hadrian’s Wall.
It stretched for nearly 60 km (40 Roman miles) across the narrow waist of Scotland from Bo’ness on the River Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the River Clyde and consisted of a turf rampart perhaps 3-4 m high fronted by a great ditch. http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/antoninewall - broken link
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jun/22/
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jul/27/
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2011/sep/21/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2011/sep/19/antonine-wall-gaps-roman-occupation
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2007/jan/23/art.news
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/2789239.stm
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/
Huge hoard of Roman coins found on Somerset farm
A total of 52,500 bronze and silver coins dating from the 3rd century AD found by hobby metal detectorist Dave Crisp https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/08/hoard-roman-coins-somerset
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/jul/08/
Roman Empire, Roman Britain
Emperor Hadrian (76-138)
Hadrian's wall c. 122
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2016/jun/26/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2010/sep/13/roman-helmet-metal-detector-cumbria
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/jul/19/history
http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/jul/23/art
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/19/history
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/2931730.stm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/hadrian_gallery.shtml
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/3150960.stm
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/4572741.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/3185871.stm
Roman Britain
First century AD
Romano-British art > Sculpture > Eagle
The London eagle was carved in the first century AD, at a time when the Roman city was exploding in population and wealth.
It is believed to have stood on an imposing mausoleum, on the roadside edge of the eastern cemetery just outside the city walls.
The road was once lined with the monuments of the wealthiest citizens, like the Via Appia outside Rome.
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/29/
Queen Boudicca d. 62
Queen of the Iceni people of Eastern England
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/west_midlands/5016126.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/norfolk/3642233.stm http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/your/a-z_norfolk/a-z_iceni.shtml
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/29/
Roman Britain
Roman invasion AD 43 - 60
Julius Caesar's attempted invasion 55 - 54 BC
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/jan/19/roman-temple-mithras
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/jan/10/unique-roman-helmet-pieced-together
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/23/archaeologists-discover-roman-port-wales
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2011/aug/17/lost-yorkshire-amphitheatre-aldborough
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/jul/16/egyptian-god-relic-identified-silchester
700 BC - AD 43
early part of the Iron Age
https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/may/10/
Bronze age
Bronze Age Britain is an era of British history that spanned from c. 2500 until c. 800 BC.
Lasting for approximately 1,700 years, it was preceded by the era of Neolithic Britain and was in turn followed by the period of Iron Age Britain.
Being categorised as the Bronze Age, it was marked by the use of copper and then bronze by the prehistoric Britons, who used such metals to fashion tools.
Great Britain in the Bronze Age also saw the widespread adoption of agriculture.
During the British Bronze Age, large megalithic monuments similar to those from the Late Neolithic continued to be constructed or modified, including such sites as Avebury, Stonehenge, Silbury Hill and Must Farm. - Wikipedia, August 19, 2020 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Britain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/mar/20/
https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2020/aug/10/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/09/
Bronze age > ireland
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/18/
Stone Age c8,000 - 2,300BC
The Stone Age is itself divided into the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) and New Stone Age (Neolithic). http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Pages/StoneAge.aspx - broken link
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/aug/30/
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/12/
https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/02/27/
Stone Age > Stonehenge
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/12/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/feb/12/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2021/feb/04/
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/29/
https://www.theguardian.com/science/audio/2020/jun/25/
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/22/
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2019/nov/30/
https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2015/11/09/
https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/sep/16/
neolithic Britain
https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2024/feb/23/
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/12/
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/sep/10/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/may/13/
Ice age
Nottinghamshire paleolithic artist
http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jul/14/
Ancient Britain
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/jan/23/
clues of Britain’s first humans
https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/
Related > Anglonautes > History
Ancient Britain - Early 21st century England, United Kingdom, British Empire
|
|
|
